American nonprofit global policy think tank and research institute The RAND Corporation first coined the term “firehose of falsehoods” in 2016 to describe a technique it observed in Russian propaganda under Vladimir Putin. It has since become the official term for propaganda techniques or communication approaches that involve the dissemination of large volumes of messages across multiple channels without regard for truth or consistency.
Understanding the Firehose of Falsehoods: A Popular Propaganda Technique Used to Promote Sociopolitical Ideologies or Disseminate and Sustains False Information
Principles
The origin of firehose of falsehoods is traced back to modern Russia under the leadership of Putin and its foundational tenet is drawn from several Soviet propaganda techniques. It involves the rapid, repetitive, and continuous dissemination of a large volume of messages. What sets it apart from techniques during the Soviet era is that the volume of messages is larger and the channels are varied due to the existence of digital mediums of communication.
A research published in Frontiers in Political Science explained that the audience tends to retreat into skepticism and the belief that truth is unknowable as a result of political actors employing a firehose of falsehoods. Hence, if truth cannot be determined, reasoned debate is pointless. This propaganda technique is also consistent with findings that epistemic and existential uncertainties motivate people to adopt conservative and authoritarian leanings.
Remember that this propaganda technique is used to advance political ideologies or specific sociopolitical positions in support of particular political actors or influential institutions. Hence, in most cases, it is used to spread and uphold false information. This fact is evident not only from Russian propaganda but also from the communication strategy of actors like Donald Trump. The following are the principles of the firehose of falsehoods technique:
• High Volume and Multichannel: The propaganda is delivered through multiple channels ranging from traditional mediums like television and newspapers to digital mediums like social media platforms, influencers, and bots.
• Rapid, Repetitive, Continuous: Messages are disseminated quickly, continuously, and without pause to prevent rebuttals. Repetition increases familiarity and believability over time even if the content or message is false.
• Disregards Truth and Consistency: The purpose of this technique is to confuse, distract, or distort perception. The disseminated messages do not need to be accurate. It does not matter if these messages contradict one another.
• Appeals to Emotion Over Reason: Messages or content trigger an emotional response like fear or anger rather than appealing to logic. Emotional arousal lowers critical thinking and increases relatedness and shareability.
Examples
Russia has extensively used firehose of falsehoods in various geopolitical scenarios to control both the domestic and international narratives. For example, during its annexation of Crimea and the subsequent conflict with Ukraine in 2014, the Russian government disseminated disinformation through mass text messages and social media to incite panic among civilians. It has also circulated pro-Russian narratives to undermine support for Ukraine.
The communication strategy of Donald Trump has also included the fire-hosing technique. Some have considered it one of the reasons why he often lies to the public. For example, during his entire 2024 campaign trail and after winning the 2024 presidential election, he has rolled out statements and remarks that misrepresent the U.S. trade deficit, exaggerate what he called the positive impacts of his tariffs, and distort the realities about the stock market.
Far-right groups in Europe have leveraged social media platforms to spread disinformation and conspiracy theories to gain political traction, influence election outcomes, and polarize societies. For example, in Central and Eastern Europe, far-right entities have used platforms like TikTok to disseminate fear-mongering content and conspiracy theories that target liberal ideologies and other views geared toward the left side of the political spectrum.
Countries like the Philippines have also struggled to combat the rise of troll farms and political influencers that began before its 2016 presidential election and during the term of former President Rodrigo Duterte. Researchers Jonathan Corpus Ong and Jason Vincent A. Cabanes have separately noted how disinformation machinery in Southeast Asian countries like the Philippines sowed distrust toward media and overwhelmed media professionals.
Defenses
There are several evidence-based and personal-level interventions aimed at countering the spread or acceptance of false information and specific propaganda techniques. However, not all of these countermeasures can work against the firehose of falsehoods. Remember that one of the goals of this propaganda technique is to overwhelm fact-checkers and other concerned parties. Researchers at The Rand Corporation have provided several reminders.
It is not advisable to counter the effects of the propaganda and dismiss targeting the propaganda itself. For example, when it comes to propaganda that undermines support for a cause, the better course of action is to boost support for that cause rather than refuting the propaganda directly. This also means that it is better to spend time and resources reinforcing the truth or strengthening what the propaganda aims to weaken instead of directly debunking it.
Heidi Tworek of the German Marshall Fund wrote a 2017 policy brief in which she stressed the importance of being careful not to repeat the original false claim, even when the intent is to refute or discredit, because it still has an effect of influencing people. Another way to combat attempts to spread false information via fire-hosing is to respond quickly as a particular event unfolds and be the first to tell the narrative and establish verifiable facts.
Remember that the purpose of the firehose of falsehood is to promote a particular idea or view through the rapid, repeated, and continuous creation and dissemination of large volumes of related messages across all available channels of communication to overwhelm other parties and even overshadow the truth. Nevertheless, based on the aforementioned countermeasures against this propaganda technique, take note of the following summary:
• Strengthen What the Propaganda Aims to Weaken: Instead of directly fighting the propaganda, reinforce the target it tries to undermine. If propaganda seeks to reduce trust in an institution, cause, or individual, then focus on boosting the credibility, trust, and visibility of that target.
• Be Careful Not to Repeat the Original False Claim: Avoid restating the false claim or information even when trying to debunk it. Repetition, even with a denial, can cement the falsehood in the minds of the audience due to psychological factors like cognitive bias and confirmation bias.
• Respond as Fast as Possible to Unfolding Event: Release accurate and compelling information as soon as possible to control the narrative before disinformation has time to spread and shape public perception. Delay allows false narratives to take root and become harder to correct.
FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES
- Cabañes, J. V. A. 2020. “Digital Disinformation and the Imaginative Dimension of Communication.” In Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. 97(2): 435-452. SAGE Publications. DOI: 1177/1077699020913799
- Dunwoody, P. T., Gershtenson, J., Plane, D. L., and Upchurch-Poole, T. 2022. “The Fascist Authoritarian Model of Illiberal Democracy. In Frontiers in Political Science. 4. Frontiers Media SA. DOI: 3389/fpos.2022.907681
- Ong, J. C. 12 January 2021. “Southeast Asia’s Disinformation Crisis: Where the State is the Biggest Bad Actor and Regulation is a Bad Word.” Items: Insights from Social Sciences. Social Science Research Council. Available online
- Paul, C. and Matthews, M. 2016. The Russian “Firehose of Falsehood” Propaganda Model: Why It Might Work and Options to Counter It. RAND Corporation. DOI: 7249/pe198
- Tworek, H. 2017. “Political Communications in the ‘Fake News’ Era: Six Lessons From Europe.” Transatlantic Academy. German Marshall Fund. Available online